What Do Rats Eat?

Rats eat a wide variety of food. They have voracious appetites and will eat almost anything. They are true omnivorous scavengers, but mostly prefer grain, livestock feed, and meat. Rats have also been known to eat soap, leather, furs, candy, milk, meat, vegetables, poultry, eggs, grain, seeds, fruit, nuts, snails and other rodents. A rat can eat a third of its body weight each day. The rat's main important consumption is water, as it can not survive long without it. Rats need 1/2 to 1 ounce of water daily.

Two main types of rats, brown rats and black rats eat about the same things. But there are slight differences in preferences between the two. Brown rats or Norway rats eat almost any type of food, but they prefer high-quality foods such as meat and fresh grain. These rats require 1/2 to 1 fluid ounce of water daily when feeding on dry food. Rats have keen taste, hearing, and sense of smell.

Roof rats or black rats generally prefer vegetables, fruits and grain, and consume 1/2 to 1 ounce food per day from various sources. They do not readily accept meat or fish. They like cereal grains, chopped apples, sweet potatoes, melons, prunes, pineapple, cookies, donuts, sweet chocolate candy, peanut butter, and tomatoes. They also consume an ounce of water per day.

Rats are nutritionally a little better than mice. Unlike the mouse that nibbles a little at a time, rats eat much more food in one sitting. Like mice, rats can live in freezers and they love to eat frozen food.

Rats have a habit of gnawing when they eat. Their chewing ability helps them to chew and gnaw through almost anything. They gnaw anything softer than their teeth. They gnaw papers, clothes, wood, plastics, water pipes, electric cables and other building materials. Their habit of gnawing causes immunity damage to mankind such as fires, power shortages and flooding.

Beginner's Guide to Computer Forensics

Introduction
Computer forensics is the practice of collecting, analyzing and reporting on digital information in a way that is legally admissible. It can be used in the detection and prevention of crime and in any dispute where evidence is stored digitally. Computer forensics has comparable examination stages to other forensic diplomas and faces similar issues.

About this guide
This guide discusses computer forensics from a neutral perspective. It is not linked to particular legislation or intended to promote a particular company or product and is not written in bias of either law enforcement or commercial computer forensics. It is aimed at a non-technical audience and provides a high-level view of computer forensics. This guide uses the term "computer", but the concepts apply to any device capable of storing digital information. Where methodologies have been stated that they provided as examples only and do not stip recommendations or advice. Copying and publishing the whole or part of this article is licensed solely under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution Non-Commercial 3.0 license

Uses of computer forensics
There are few areas of crime or dispute where computer forensics can not be applied. Law enforcement agencies have been among the earliest and heaviest users of computer forensics and inevitably have often been at the forefront of developments in the field. Computers may institute a 'scene of a crime', for example with hacking [1] or denial of service attacks [2] or they may hold evidence in the form of emails, internet history, documents or other files relevant to crimes such as murder , kidnap, fraud and drug trafficking. It is not just the content of emails, documents and other files which may be of interest to investigators but also the 'meta-data' [3] associated with those files. A computer forensic examination may reveal when a document first appeared on a computer, when it was last edited, when it was last saved or printed and which user carried out these actions.

More recently, commercial organizations have used computer forensics to their benefit in a variety of cases such as;

• Intellectual Property theft
• Industrial espionage
• Employment disputes
• Fraud investigations
• Forgeries
• Matrimonial issues
• Bankruptcy investigations
• Inappropriate email and internet use in the work place
• Regulatory compliance

Guidelines
For evidence to be admissible it must be reliable and not prejudicial, meaning that at all stages of this process admissibility should be at the forefront of a computer forensic examiner's mind. One set of guidelines which has been widely accepted to assist in this is the Association of Chief Police Officers Good Practice Guide for Computer Based Electronic Evidence or ACPO Guide for short. Although the ACPO Guide is aimed at United Kingdom law enforcement its main principles are applicable to all computer forensics in whatever legislature. The four main principles from this guide have been reproduced below (with references to law enforcement removed):

1. No action should change data held on a computer or storage media which may be relied upon in court.


2. In circumstances where a person finds it necessary to access original data held on a computer or storage media, that person must be competent to do so and be able to give evidence explaining the relevancy and the implications of their actions.


3. An audit trail or other record of all processes applied to computer-based electronic evidence should be created and preserved. An independent third-party should be able to examine those processes and achieve the same result.


4. The person in charge of the investigation has overall responsibility for ensuring that the law and these principles are adhered to.

In summary, no changes should have been made to the original, however if access / changes are necessary the examiner must know what they are doing and to record their actions.

Live acquisition
Principle 2 above may raise the question: In what situation would changes to a suspect's computer by a computer forensic examiner be necessary? Traditionally, the computer forensic examiner would make a copy (or acquire) information from a device which is turned off. A write-blocker [4] would be used to make an exact bit for bit copy [5] of the original storage medium. The examiner would work then from this copy, leaving the original demonstrably unchanged.

However, sometimes it is not possible or desirable to switch a computer off. It may not be possible to switch a computer off if doing so would result in considering financial or other loss for the owner. It may not be desirable to switch a computer off if doing so would mean that potentially valuable evidence may be lost. In both these circumstances the computer forensic examiner would need to carry out a 'live acquisition' which would involve running a small program on the suspect computer in order to copy (or acquire) the data to the examiner's hard drive.

By running such a program and attaching a destination drive to the suspect computer, the examiner will make changes and / or additions to the state of the computer which were not present before his actions. Such actions would have remained admissible as long as the examiner recorded their actions, was aware of their impact and was able to explain their actions.

Stages of an examination
For the purposes of this article the computer forensic examination process has been divided into six stages. Although they are presented in their usual chronological order, it is necessary during an examination to be flexible. For example, during the analysis stage the examiner may find a new lead which would warrant further computers being examined and would mean a return to the evaluation stage.

Readiness
Forensic readiness is an important and often overlooked stage in the examination process. In commercial computer forensics it can include educating clients about system preparedness; For example, forensic tests will provide stronger evidence if a server or computer's built-in auditing and logging systems are all switched on. For examiners there are many areas where prior organization can help, including training, regular testing and verification of software and equipment, familiarity with legislation, dealing with unexpected issues (eg, what to do if child pornography is present during a commercial job) and ensuring that your on-site acquisition kit is complete and in working order.

Evaluation
The evaluation stage includes the receipt of clear instructions, risk analysis and allocation of roles and resources. Risk analysis for law enforcement may include an assessment on the likelihood of physical threat on entering a suspect's property and how best to deal with it. Commercial organizations also need to be aware of health and safety issues, while their evaluation would also cover reputational and financial risks on accepting a particular project.

Collection
The main part of the collection stage, acquisition, has been introduced above. If acquisition is to be carried out on-site rather than in a computer forensic laboratory then this stage would include identifying, securing and documenting the scene. Interviews or meetings with personnel who may hold information which could be relevant to the examination (which could include the end users of the computer, and the manager and person responsible for providing computer services) would normally be carried out at this stage. The 'bagging and tagging' audit trail would start here by sealing any materials in unique tamper-evident bags. Consideration also needs to be given to securely and safely transporting the material to the examiner's laboratory.

Analysis
Analysis depends on the specifics of each job. The examiner typically provides feedback to the client during analysis and from this dialogue the analysis may take a different path or be narrowed to specific areas. Analysis must be accurate, thorough, impartial, recorded, repeatable and completed within the time-scales available and resources allocated. There are myriad tools available for computer forensics analysis. It is our opinion that the examiner should use any tool they feel comfortable with as long as they can justify their choice. The main requirements of a computer forensic tool is that it does what it is meant to do and the only way for examiners to be sure of this is for them to regularly test and calibrate the tools that use before analysis takes place. Dual-tool verification can confirm result integrity during analysis (if with tool 'A' the examiner finds artefact 'X' at location 'Y', then tool 'B' should replicate these results.)

Presentation
This stage usually involves the examiner producing a structured report on their findings, addressing the points in the initial instructions along with any subsequent instructions. It would also cover any other information which the examiner deems relevant to the investigation. The report must be written with the end reader in mind; in many cases the reader of the report will be non-technical, so the terminology should acknowledge this. The examiner should also be prepared to participate in meetings or telephone conferences to discuss and elaborate on the report.

Review
Along with the readiness stage, the review stage is often overlooked or disregarded. This may be due to the perceived costs of doing work that is not billable, or the need 'to get on with the next job'. However, a review stage incorporated into each examination can help save money and raise the level of quality by making future examinations more efficient and time effective. A review of an examination can be simple, quick and can begin during any of the above stages. It may include a basic 'what went wrong and how can this be improved' and a 'what went well and how it can be incorporated into future examinations'. Feedback from the instructing party should also be thought. Any lessons learnt from this stage should be applied to the next examination and fed into the readiness stage.

Issues facing computer forensics
The issues facing computer forensics examiners can be broken down into three broad categories: technical, legal and administrative.

Encryption - Encrypted files or hard drives can be impossible for investigators to view without the correct key or password. Examiners should consider that the key or password may be stored elsewhere on the computer or on another computer which the suspect has had access to. It could also reside in the volatile memory of a computer (known as RAM [6] which is usually lost on computer shut-down; another reason to consider using live acquisition techniques as outlined above.

Increasing storage space - Storage media holds ever greater amounts of data which for the examiner means that their analysis computers need to have sufficient processing power and available storage to efficiently deal with searching and analyzing massive amounts of data.

New technologies - Computing is an ever-changing area, with new hardware, software and operating systems being constantly produced. No single computer forensic examiner can be an expert on all areas, although they may frequently be expected to analyze something which they have not deal with before. In order to deal with this situation, the examiner should be prepared and able to test and experiment with the behavior of new technologies. Networking and sharing knowledge with other computer forensic examiners is also very useful in this respect as it's likely someone else may have already encountered the same issue.

Anti-forensics - Anti-forensics is the practice of trying to thwart computer forensic analysis. This may include encryption, the over-writing of data to make it unrecoverable, the modification of files' meta-data and file obfuscation (disguising files). As with encryption above, the evidence that such methods have been used may be stored elsewhere on the computer or on another computer which the suspect has had access to. In our experience, it is very rare to see anti-forensics tools used correctly and frequently enough to totally obscure either their presence or the presence of the evidence that they were used to hide.

Legal issues
Legal arguments may confuse or distract from a computer examiner's findings. An example here would be the 'Trojan Defense'. A Trojan is a piece of computer code disguised as something benign but which has a hidden and malicious purpose. Trojans have many uses, and include key-logging [7], uploading and downloading files and installation of viruses. A lawyer may be able to argue that actions on a computer were not carried out by a user but were automated by a Trojan without the user's knowledge; such a Trojan Defense has been successfully used even when no trace of a Trojan or other malicious code was found on the suspect's computer. In such cases, a competent opposition lawyer, supplied with evidence from a competent computer forensic analyst, should be able to dismiss such an argument.

Accepted standards - There are a plethora of standards and guidelines in computer forensics, few of which appear to be universally accepted. This is due to a number of reasons including standard-setting bodies being tied to particular legislations, standards being aimed either at law enforcement or commercial foreensics but not at both, the authors of such standards not being accepted by their peers, or high joining fees dissuading practitioners from participating.

Fitness to practice - In many jurisprudence there is no qualifying body to check the competency and integrity of computer forensics professionals. In such cases anyone may present themselves as a computer forensic expert, which may result in computer forensic examinations of questionable quality and a negative view of the profession as a whole.

Resources and further reading
There does not appear to be a great amount of material covering computer forensics which is aimed at a non-technical readership. However the following links at links at the bottom of this page may prove to be of interest prove to be of interest:

Glossary
1. Hacking: modifying a computer in way which was not originally intended in order to benefit the hacker's goals.
2. Denial of Service attack: an attempt to prevent legitimate users of a computer system from having access to that system's information or services.
3. Meta-data: at a basic level meta-data is data about data. It can be embedded within files or stored externally in a separate file and may contain information about the file's author, format, creation date and so on.
4. Write blocker: a hardware device or software application which prevails any data from being modified or added to the storage medium being examined.
5. Bit copy: bit is a contracting of the term 'binary digit' and is the fundamental unit of computing. A bit copy refers to a sequential copy of every bit on a storage medium, which includes areas of the medium 'invisible' to the user.
6. RAM: Random Access Memory. RAM is a computer's temporary workspace and is volatile, which means its contents are lost when the computer is powered off.
7. Key-logging: the recording of keyboard input giving the ability to read a user's typed passwords, emails and other confidential information.

Reverse Phone Services That Use PayPal

As we all know, PayPal is one of the most secure payment forms on the internet and they provide you with a secure online transaction each and every time. Reverse phone services include this service so you never have to worry about people stealing your identify when you sign up for the service. With that said, here is some more information on why reverse phone services use secure payment forms and why you should too.

The main reason why you should always go though a secure site when signing up for a reverse cell service is due to the fact that your information is safe. When placing your credit card information, name, and e-mail address online without going through a secure site, you may be in a heap of trouble. This could lead to your identity being stolen or your credit card being swiped from someone far, far away.

The next reason why it is important to sign up for a reverse cell service with PayPal is because it makes life just a little bit easier. You do not have to jump through loopholes or contact someone for support. It is a simple process that only takes a few minutes to complete.

The last reason why people should use PayPal is because they are reliable. ClickBank, the leader in digital downloads has teamed up with PayPal to allow you to have a secure transaction for any service in which you need.

So take the time to find a reverse service that includes PayPal and you will find the information you need today.

The Importance of Financial Services Technology and Banking Software

Financial institutions like banks, security companies and other lending institutions must have some type of system in place that can manage their staff, customers and sensitive paperwork. Financial Services Technology and Banking Software is a necessity for any financial institution if they wish to make their services run smoothly.

Financial Services Technology / Banking Software

Banking software should address the cleric aspects of any business, fund disbursement, collateral maintenance and management. It should be in place to regulate trading, securities, lending, interest rates and changes that are constantly happening. It should also have applications for customers, staff and management.

Benefits of Collateral Management Software

This type of software is used to reduce cost, decrease time, speed up loan processing, track customers, staff and paperwork. It also allows for staff analysis, it reduces duplicate data storage, and it offers electronic storage. It incorporates document connection and tracks cash flow, and offers payment solutions and application modernization. Banking and contractual management software brings less risk and it helps with decision making.

Purchasing Software

Financial Services Technology and Banking Software can be purchased through online sources. There are several reputable companies that will offer a free consultation that will evaluate the customers business and determine the software that is appropriate for the business. Whether it is a large institution or a small business, there is a contractual management software package out there. It is best to do the research of the software company to determine if they have the years of experience, references, favorable reviews and the customer service to back it up.

Conclusion

Banking Software has improved over the years and it has been upgraded to include securities, investment areas, loan processing and several trading applications. Customer applications, financial publications, staff paperwork, market interest rate, and current management solutions are all available through the right software. Any type of baking software should reduce cost and make every aspect of the business come together with automatic updates and easy transition between departments.

Decreasing processing time with applications is a necessity for any efficiently run banking institution. Time is money and in today's economy any way to cut down unnecessary cost is welcomed. Time management, money management, interoffice communication and interchanging quickly between financial applications are needed to run a financial institution. A financial institution wants to be able to get the customer in and out quickly, but with complete satisfaction and financial banking software allows them to do that.

Important Hardware and Software Support For Your Computers

A completely functional technical infrastructure is a blessing for any company. Even at home, you will be satisfied when you have a fully working computer with very less troubleshooting. The technical facilities for the computer systems in your organizations should be top of the order so that you can enjoy an excellent working environment. A good computer repair support company will provide you with the required services to repair and maintain your technical systems whatever is the problem with your computers.

There can be several reasons why your systems might need computer repair and upgrade.
Your computers might have crashed and you want to repair it. You may want to transfer some important files from your crashed hard drive and save it elsewhere for future use. You may want to save your valuable money instead of spending thousands of dollars for data recovery services. All these services will be provided by only a professional company who specializes in computer repair support.

Other important services for your computer repair and upgrade will be provided a fully equipped computer support firm. Your might want a larger hard drive or more memory space to store all your important data and information. You may want to establish a network within your office for internal communication and sharing of other files. You may want professional help in setting up new hardware or software. You may have discovered that your systems need to be upgraded with the latest anti-virus to get rid of unwanted spyware or malware.

The most essential resources for a company is the right technical assistance. It is very important to safeguard your company's confidential data and information, and theby prevent breach of security. Save your business from hackers and competition who want to get a better idea of ​​how you work.

An added benefit of the upkeep of your systems is that they increase the productivity of your employees also. You have to keep upgrading your computers when performance of these machines fall below standards because of heavy file sharing and large network. A memory upgrade is the easiest way to increase overall system performance. They are also one of the simplest computer upgrades which can be done. Increase the RAM of your computers and you will see an overwhelming difference in the speed and performance. Get the best value for your money with good and cost effective computer upgrades. Always invest in the services of a good computer repair and upgrade firm which has a diverse client portfolio in the fields of education, telecommunications, hospitality, services, real estate, manufacturing, etc.

Why Financial Planning Is Important

Over the last few years, we often heard terms like financial planning, personal finance, investment management, retirement planning which have emerged as buzzwords of sorts. Newspapers, blogs, magazines, television channels and just about every one under the sun seem to be talking about the importance of financial planning. So what is financial planning; more importantly, why it is so important?

In simple words, Financial Planning (FP) is the process of meeting your life goals through the proper management of your finances. The process of financial planning should help you answer questions such as where you are today, that is, your current personal balance sheet, where do you want to be tomorrow, that is, finances linked to your goals, and what you must do to get there, that is, what you must do to reach your goals.

The process involves gathering relevant financial information, setting life goals (such as children education, buying home, buying car) examining your current financial status and coming up with a strategy or plan for how you can meet your goals given your current situation and future plans .

Developing a financial plan needs a consideration of various factors. This includes client's current financial status, their financial goals, any outstanding loan, investment instruments, insurance requirement, retirement corpus, inflation, risk profile, tax liability etc.

FP provides you with a method for organizing your financial future, so you can plan for the unforeseen. Organizing your finances empowers you to be independent and handle unpredictable events in your life. Successful personal financial planning is crucial for anyone who wishes to manage financial difficulties and accumulate wealth.

Coming to our main topic ie why it is important. Let us understand one by one.

1. It helps in increasing cash flow as well as monitoring the spending pattern. The cash flow is increased by undertaking measures such as tax planning, prudent spending and careful budgeting.

2. A proper financial estimate / plan that considers the income and expenditure of a person, assists in choosing the right investment policy. It enables the person to reach the set goals.

3. It helps gaining an understanding about the current financial position. Adjustments in an investment plan or evaluating a retirement scheme becomes easy for an individual with financial understanding.

4. Providing for your family's financial security is an important part of the FP process. Having the proper insurance coverage and policies in place can provide peace of mind for you and your loved ones.

5. It helps you to achieve financial freedom.

6. To meet financial goals and obligations.

Trading and Profit and Loss Account

Trading Account

As already discussed, first section of trading and profit and loss account is called trading account. The aim of preparing trading account is to find out gross profit or gross loss while that of second section is to find out net profit or net loss.

Preparation of Trading Account

Trading account is prepared mainly to know the profitability of the goods bought (or manufactured) sold by the businessman. The difference between selling price and cost of goods sold is the, 5 earning of the business. Thus in order to calculate the gross e-learning, it is necessary to know:

(a) cost of goods sold.

(b) sales.

Total sales can be ascertained from the sales ledger. The cost of goods sold is, however, calculated. n order to calculate the cost of sales it is necessary to know its meaning. The 'cost of goods' includes the purchase price of the goods plus expenses relating to purchase of goods and brining the goods to the place of business. In order to calculate the cost of goods "we should deduct from the total cost of goods purchased the cost of goods in hand. We can study this phenomenon with the help of following formula:

Opening stock + cost of purchases - closing stock = cost of sales

As already discussed that the purpose of preparing trading account is to calculate the gross profit of the business. It can be described as excess of amount of 'Sales' over 'Cost of Sales'. This definition can be explained in terms of following equation:

Gross Profit = Sales-Cost of goods sold or (Sales + Closing Stock) - (Stock in the beginning + Purchases + Direct Expenses)

The opening stock and purchases along with buying and bringing expenses (direct exp.) Are recorded the debit side whereas sales and closing stock is recorded on the credit side. If credit side is Jeater than the debit side the difference is written on the debit side as gross profit which is extremely recorded on the credit side of profit and loss account. When the debt side exceeds the credit side, the difference is gross loss which is recorded at credit side and extremely shown on the debit side of profit & loss account.

Usual Items in a Trading Account :

A) Debit Side

1. Opening Stock. It is the stock which remained unsold at the end of previous year. It must have been brought into books with the help of opening entry; so it always appears inside the trial balance. Typically, it is shown as first item at the debit side of trading account. Of course, in the first year of a business there will be no opening stock.

2. Purchases. It is normally second item on the debit side of trading account. 'Purchases' mean total purchases ie cash plus credit purchases. Any return outwards (purchases return) should be deducted out of purchases to find out the net purchases. Sometimes goods are received before the relevant invoice from the supplier. In such a situation, on the date of preparing final accounts an entry should be passed to debit the purchases account and to credit the suppliers' account with the cost of goods.

3. Buying Expenses. All expenses relating to purchase of goods are also debited in the trading account. These include -ages, carriage inwards freight, duty, clearing charges, dock charges, excise duty, octroi and import duty etc.

4. Manufacturing Expenses. Such expenses are incurred by businessmen to manufacture or to render the goods in saleable condition viz., Motive power, gas fuel, stores, royalties, factory expenses, foreman and supervisor's salary etc.

Although manufacturing expenses are strictly to be taken in the manufacturing account since we are preparing only trading account, expenses of this type may also be included in the trading account.

(B) Credit Side

1. Sales. Sales mean total sales ie cash plus credit sales. If there are any sales returns, these should be deducted from sales. So net sales are credited to trading account. If an asset of the firm has been sold, it should not have been included in the sales.

2. Closing Stock. It is the value of stock lying unsold in the godown or shop on the last date of accounting period. Normally closing stock is given outside the trial balance in that case it is shown on the credit side of trading account. But if it is given inside the trial balance, it is not to be shown on the credit side of trading account but appears only in the balance sheet as asset. Closing stock should be valued at cost or market price wherever is less.

Valuation of Closing Stock

The ascertain the value of closing stock it is necessary to make a complete inventory or list of all the items in the god own together with quantities. On the basis of physical observation the stock lists are prepared and the value of total stock is calculated on the basis of unit value. Thus, it is clear that stock-taking entails (i) inventorying, (ii) pricing. Each item is priced at cost, except the market price is lower. Pricing an inventory at cost is easy if cost remains fixed. But prices remain fluctuating; so the valuation of stock is done on the basis of one of many valuation methods.

The preparation of trading account helps the trade to know the relationship between the costs be incurred and the revenues earned and the level of efficiency with which operations have been conducted. The ratio of gross profit to sales is very significant: it is arrived at:

Gross Profit X 100 / Sales

With the help of GP ratio he can ascertain as to how efficiently he is running the business higher the ratio, better will be the efficiency.

Closing Entries relating to trading Account

For transferring various accounts relating to goods and buying expenses, following closing entries registered:

(i) For opening Stock: Debit trading account and credit stock account

(ii) For purchases: Debit trading account and credit purchases account, the amount being the and amount after deducting purchases returns.

(iii) For purchases returns: Debit purchases return account and credit purchases account.

(iv) For returns inwards: Debit sales account and credit sales return account

(v) For direct expenses: Debit trading account and credit direct expenses accounts individually.

(vi) For sales: Debit sales account and credit trading account. We will find that all the accounts as stated above will be closed with the exception of trading account

(vii) For closing stock: Debit closing stock account and credit trading account After recording above entries the trading account will be balanced and difference of two sides ascertained. If credit side is more the result is gross profit for which following entry is recorded.

(viii) For gross profit: Debit trading account and credit profit and loss account If the result is gross loss the above entry is reversed.

Profit and Loss Account

The profit and loss account is opened by recording the gross profit (on credit side) or gross loss (debit side).

For approaching net profit a businessman has to incur many more expenses in addition to the direct expenses. Those expenses are deducted from profit (or added to gross loss), the resultant figure will be net profit or net loss.

The expenses which are recorded in profit and loss account are ailed 'indirect expenses'. These be classified as follows:

Selling and distribution expenses .

These composer of following expenses:

(a) Salesmen's salary and commission

(b) Commission to agents

(c) Freight & carriage on sales

(d) Sales tax

(e) Bad debts

(f) Advertising

(g) Packing expenses

(h) Export duty

Administrative Expenses .

These include:

(a) Office salaries & wages

(b) Insurance

(c) Legal expenses

(d) Trade expenses

(e) Rates & taxes

(f) Audit fees

(g) Insurance

(h) Rent

(i) Printing and stationery

(j) Postage and telegrams

(k) Bank charges

Financial Expenses

These composer:

(a) Discount allowed

(b) Interest on Capital

(c) Interest on loan

(d) Discount Charges on bill deducted

Maintenance, depreciations and provisions etc.

These include following expenses

(a) Repairs

(b) Depreciation on assets

(c) Provision or reserve for doubtful debts

(d) Reserve for discount on debtors.

Along with above indirect expenses the debit side of profit and loss account enterprises of various business losses also.

On the credit side of profit and loss account the items recorded are:

(a) Discount received

(b) Commission received

(c) Rent received

(d) Interest received

(e) Income from investments

(f) Profit on sale of assets

(g) Bad debts recovered

(h) Dividend received

(i) Apprenticeship premium etc.